Science Man and His Environment/Air Quality

The Atmosphere
The description of the Earth's Atmosphere is now in its own section: Atmosphere

Air Pollution

 * Primary air pollutants : pollutants emitted directly


 * Secondary air pollutants : pollutants created from reactions between primary air pollutants


 * Criteria air pollutants : 6 pollutants regulated by the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)
 * carbon monoxide
 * particulate matter
 * sulfur dioxide
 * nitrogen dioxide
 * ozone
 * lead

Sulfur Dioxide
Sulfur is oxidized to sulfur dioxide:


 * S + O2 &rarr; SO2

This can then be combined with water in the atmosphere to form sulfur dioxide:


 * 2SO2 + O2 + 2H2O &rarr; H2SO4

Source:


 * burning of sulfur-containing compounds including coal and oil


 * smelting of metal ores


 * Cu2S + O2 &rarr; 2Cu + SO2 (metal ore)



Direct Effect
 * Absorbed by moist respiratory tissue causing restriction of airway


 * - especialy severe in people with asthma

Environmental Effect


 * Acid Deposition


 * The fallout of sulfuric acid either in rain or as dry particles is called acid deposition or, more commonly, acid rain.

Acid Deposition
Effects:
 * Destruction of concrete and stone structures


 * The sulfuric acid converts calcium carbonate to calcium sulfate which is more soluble: CaCO3 + H2SO4 &rarr; CaSO4 + 2H+ + CO32+




 * Acidification of forests, rivers, and lakes


 * Some lakes have natural buffering, but many do not.


 * Acidified water causes death of fish and other organisms, due to both the lower pH directly and the leaching of metal, especially aluminum. It also causes damage to trees and other plants.



Nitrogen Dioxide
Nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) are formed from high temperature combustion.


 * low temperature combustion: CH4 + O2 + N2 &rarr; CO2 + H2O +  N2


 * high temperature combustion:
 * CH4 + O2 + N2 &rarr; CO2 + H2O + NO
 * NO + O2 &rarr; NO2

Nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide are together called NOx (read as nox).

Health Effects:


 * lung irritation


 * increases susceptibility to lung disease



Ozone
Nitrogen dioxide reacts with sunlight to form nitric oxide and atomic oxygen. This oxygen reacts quickly with molecular oxygen (O2) to form ozone. Ozone can then react with nitric oxide to regenerate nitrogen dioxide.

NO2 + h&nu; &rarr; NO + O

O + O2 &rarr; O3

O3 + NO &rarr; NO2 + O2

Note The ozone formed here is tropospheric ozone ("bad ozone"), not to be confused with stratospheric ozone ("good ozone")

Health Effects:


 * lung problems


 * eye irritation

Environment Effects:


 * damage to plants and trees



Photochemical Smog
Tropospheric ozone reacts with organic chemicals to produce photochemical smog.

Smog is a toxic soup of NOx, ozone, peroxyacyl nitrates (PANs), aldehydes, and other organic chemicals.



Thermal inversions
Under certain conditions a layer of warm air can occur above cold air. This causes any pollutants to be trapped and not dispersed.





A good animation of thermal inversion can be found here.

Particulate matter (PM) and Aerosols

 * Particulate Matter : Small solid and liquid particles which remain suspended in the atmosphere.



Sizes are up to 10 micrometers in diameter.

Sources:


 * dust from construction, agriculture, and roads
 * forest fires
 * burning of solid and liquids -- especially from coal, wood, and diesel fuel
 * clearing of land for agriculture

Effects:


 * The small particles can get trapped in the lining of the lung causing irritation, inflammation, or cancer




 * Inflammation


 * Silicosis (silica dust)


 * Black Lung disease (coal dust)


 * Cancer


 * Asbestos


 * Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)


 * Tar from incomplete combustion and tobacco smoke



Carbon Monoxide (CO)


Source: incomplete burning of organic materials


 * complete combustion:	CH4 + 2O2 &rarr; CO2 + 2H2O


 * incomplete combustion:	CH4 + 1.5O2 &rarr; CO + 2H2O

Effects: binds with hemoglobin to form carboxyhemoglobin. This carboxyhemoglobin cannot transfer oxygen to the cells.



Lead


Sources:


 * paint
 * smelters
 * batteries
 * leaded gasoline

Effects:
 * memory loss
 * learning difficulties
 * nervous system damage
 * damage to bones and kidneys
 * accumulative poison

Mercury


Sources:


 * burning of coal
 * small-scale gold mining

Effects:


 * mental effects ("mad-hatter's" disease)
 * kidney disease



Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC's)
Definition:


 * Organic compounds which rapidly evaporate.

Examples:


 * benzene
 * acetone
 * solvents
 * formaladehyde (from building materials)

Effects:

varies widely depending on substance


 * eye, nose, and throat irritation
 * dizziness and headaches
 * damage to liver, kidney, and nervous system
 * actual toxicity varies widely

Indoor Air Pollution
Indoor air pollution is air pollutants found in your home, office, etc.

Examples:


 * formaldehdye
 * chlorinated solvents
 * pesticides
 * tobacco smoke
 * radon

Radon
Source:


 * Naturally radioactive gas. A decay product of radium (which is a decay product of uranium). Uranium and radium can be found naturally in some rocks especially granite. Radon can then enter houses built on such rocks.

Effects:


 * lung cancer (due to alpha radiation)

Ozone Depletion
As stated above, the stratosphere contains a layer of ozone which protects the Earth from dangerous ultraviolet radiation.

Chlorinated and brominated hydrocarbons can travel unreacted up to the stratosphere. The most important of these are the chlorofluorocarbons (CFC's).

CCl3F + h&nu; &rarr; CCl2F + Cl

This free chlorine then reacts with the ozone.

Cl + O3 &rarr; ClO + O2

ClO + O &rarr; Cl + O2

net O3 + O &rarr; O2 + O2

This depletes the amount of ozone present.

These ozone depleting chemicals include:


 * chlorofluorocarbons (CFC's)


 * hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFC's)


 * halons (bromochloroflurocarbons)


 * methyl bromide

Montreal Protocol


In the 1980's, it was found the ozone layer was thinning. In 1987 a treaty called the Montreal Protocol was signed.

It bans the use of ozone depleting chemicals. This has stabilized the ozone layer, though it will take many years for the ozone layer to return to previous levels